Vitamins and minerals are essential micronutrients which often cannot be easily stored, so a small and constant supply from diet or supplements is required.

Coenzymes

Enzymes and coenzymes play an important role in facilitating chemical reactions that are essential for various metabolic processes in our bodies. Coenzymes are continuously made, consumed and then recycle. One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions involving coenzymes. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it.

Coenzymes are small, non-protein molecules that work in conjunction with enzymes to catalyze specific biochemical reactions. They are often derived from vitamins or other organic compounds and bind to enzymes, enabling or enhancing their catalytic activity. Most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.

Here's how coenzymes contribute to the production and utilization of nutrients:

1. Energy production: Coenzymes such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are involved in the metabolism of nutrients, particularly in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, which are essential for the production of ATP, the energy currency of cells.
2. Biosynthesis of biomolecules: Coenzymes like coenzyme A (CoA) and tetrahydrofolate (THF) are involved in the synthesis of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are essential biomolecules required for various biological processes, including growth, repair, and maintenance.
3. Nutrient activation: Some coenzymes, such as biotin and pyridoxal phosphate (the active form of vitamin B6), are involved in activating or transferring specific nutrients or compounds, making them available for further metabolic reactions.
4. Antioxidant activities: Coenzymes like alpha-lipoic acid and ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) have antioxidant properties, helping to protect cells from oxidative damage and potentially contributing to the utilization of nutrients.

While coenzymes do not directly produce nutrients, they are crucial for the proper functioning of enzymes and metabolic pathways that are responsible for the breakdown, conversion, and utilization of nutrients from our diet. Without coenzymes, many essential biochemical reactions would not occur efficiently, hampering our ability to derive energy and essential biomolecules from the food we consume.

Minerals and cofactors

Inorganic elements play crucial roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at small concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water

The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels

Magnesium

Our bodies use magnesium to regulate blood pressure, muscle and nerve function, bone development, and to synthesize DNA. It is vital to get the proper amounts through food, water, or supplementation. Dairy products can be rich source of magnesium and a is primary sources of this mineral for many. Nuts, seeds, and leafy greens in daily meals to boost magnesium intake. Also recommended are Epsom salt baths, magnesium body lotions, oral and transdermal magnesium products.

Various anions attached to the cation magnesium, such as oxide, chloride, gluconate, and lactate, affect the delivery of the amounts of elemental magnesium to the target site and thereby produce different pharmacodynamic effects. see: Bioavailability of Magnesium Salts (opens in a new tab) The water solubility of a Mg salt is of importance for the bioavailability, with organic salts having a higher bioavability than inorganic ones. This means that Mg-Citrate, Mg-Glycinate, Mg-Taurate, and Mg-Malate has a higher absorbtion than Mg-Oxide.

1. Magnesium Citrate: This form of magnesium is bound with citric acid, which is naturally found in citrus fruits. It is often used as a dietary supplement and is relatively easy for the body to absorb. This type is created by binding magnesium and chlorine.
2. Magnesium Glycinate: A compound of magnesium and glycine (an amino acid), magnesium glycinate is well-tolerated and causes minimal side effects. It’s a good choice for those who need higher doses of magnesium or experience side effects with other forms.
3. Magnesium Lactate: Composed of magnesium and lactic acid, this type is known to absorb easily in the gut. It’s a promising option for supplementation.
4. Magnesium Malate: A compound of magnesium and malic acid, magnesium malate is highly bioavailable and well-tolerated. Animal studies suggest it absorbs quickly after a single dose.
5. Magnesium Taurate: This form combines magnesium with the amino acid taurine. While research is ongoing, some studies suggest it may help lower blood pressure and aid in some cardiovascular treatments.
6. Magnesium Sulfate: Commonly known as Epsom salt, magnesium sulfate is used externally (such as in baths) for relaxation and muscle relief. This type combines magnesium with sulfur and oxygen. Some studies are showing the benefits of using magnesium sulfate to treat symptoms of migraines, acute asthma, depression and anxiety.
7. Magnesium Chloride: Widely used in topical applications, magnesium chloride is known for its potential benefits when applied directly to the skin.
8. Magnesium Oxide: Although less bioavailable than some other forms, magnesium oxide is often used as a laxative. It’s essential to consider potential digestive side effects when using this type.
9. Magnesium Orotate: A combination of magnesium and orotic acid, research indicates that magnesium orotate may encourage better gut health, which could improve the gut-brain axis and experiences of well-being. The high bioavailability of this magnesium type also makes it helpful in treating magnesium deficiency.

Magnesium also activates the COMT gene, a protein-coding gene that helps with anxiety management and hormone metabolite detoxification (the body’s process of eliminating byproducts). It regulates cardiovascular physiology, stress responses, inflammation, and hypertension. It aids with producing digestive enzymes, nutrient absorption, and peristalsis, the wave-like motion that propels food through the digestive tract. Recent findings support the hypothesis that the Mg effect on intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis may be a common link between stress, inflammation and a possible relationship to metabolic syndrome. ¹

Sodium

Positively charged forms of sodium, called ions, are used in many metabolic reactions and plays several crucial roles in our body:

1. Fluid Balance: Sodium helps maintain the balance of body fluids. Most of the body’s sodium is found in the blood and fluid around cells. It ensures that our cells stay hydrated and our blood volume remains stable.
2. Nerve and Muscle Function: Sodium is essential for normal nerve and muscle function. It helps transmit nerve impulses and allows muscles to contract properly.
3. Blood Pressure Regulation: Sodium levels impact blood pressure. Too much sodium can lead to high blood pressure, while too little can cause low blood pressure.
4. Brain Function: Adequate sodium is required for proper brain function. It helps maintain cognitive abilities and supports brain health.
5. Insulin Sensitivity: Sodium influences insulin sensitivity, which is essential for managing blood sugar levels.
6. Preventing Dehydration: Sodium helps prevent dehydration by maintaining fluid balance and supporting efficient water retention.

While sodium is necessary, excessive intake can be harmful. It’s essential to strike a balance and avoid excessive salt consumption.

1. Table Salt: Also known as common salt or refined salt, table salt is the most common type found in households. It’s highly refined, iodized (to prevent iodine deficiency). One teaspoon of table salt contains approximately 2,330 mg of sodium.
2. Kosher Salt: Without iodine, one teaspoon of kosher salt contains around 1,920 mg of sodium.
3. Sea Salt: Fine sea salt contains about 2,120 mg of sodium per teaspoon, and varies in composition depending on its source. It’s less refined than table salt. Common minerals found in sea salt include calcium, potassium, magnesium, and occasionally zinc and iron.
4. Himalayan Pink Salt: This salt contains various minerals and trace elements as does sea salt but is distinctively pink due to iron oxide content. Fine Himalayan pink salt has around 2,200 mg of sodium per teaspoon.

Salts have their own unique and differing qualities. All salts has the about same amount of sodium by weight, but the volume can differ based on crystal size. Smaller crystals (like table salt) have more sodium per teaspoon than larger ones (like coarse sea salt or kosher salt) due to density and surface area relative to their volume; this means more sodium ions are exposed on the surface.

Iron

Iron is a vital mineral with several crucial roles in our body in the body relating to the overall metabolism of oxygen, not the least of which is its role in hemoglobin transport of oxygen:

1. Hemoglobin Formation: Iron is a key component of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. Without sufficient iron, our blood cannot transport oxygen effectively.
2. Myoglobin: Iron also plays a role in myoglobin, a protein found in muscles. Myoglobin stores and releases oxygen during muscle contraction, aiding in energy production and endurance.
3. Energy Production: Iron is essential for the proper functioning of mitochondria, the cellular powerhouses. It helps in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of cells.
4. Immune Function: Iron supports immune system function. It’s necessary for the growth and activity of immune cells, including white blood cells that fight infections.
5. Cognitive Health: Iron contributes to cognitive development and brain health. It’s involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and overall brain function.
6. DNA Synthesis: Iron is required for DNA synthesis, the process of creating new DNA molecules, cell division, and the process of creating new cells.
7. Hormone Production: Iron is necessary for the production of certain hormones, including thyroid hormones.

Within the body iron exist in two oxidation states: ferrous [Fe2+, Fe(II)] or ferric [Fe3+, Fe(III)]. Under conditions of neutral or alkaline pH, iron is found in the Fe3+ state and at acidic pH the Fe2+ state is favored. [^ nm] Breathing, whether rapid or slow, affecting pH then effects the favoring of iron oxidation states. Iron in the human body is toxic if allowed to remain free in the plasma or the fluid compartments of cells. When in the Fe3+ state, iron will form large complexes with anions, water, and peroxides. These large complexes have poor solubility and upon their aggregation lead to pathological consequences. [^ nm]

Chloride

Chloride ions (Cl⁻) play a crucial role in maintaining electrical balance in our cells and body fluids. Here’s how they work:

1. Cellular Balance: Inside our cells, there are positively charged ions like sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺). These ions create electrical differences across the cell membrane. Chloride ions, being negatively charged, help balance this by moving in and out of cells.
2. Neuronal Function: In nerve cells (neurons), chloride ions influence the resting membrane potential. They contribute to the excitability of neurons and affect how signals are transmitted along nerve fibers.
3. Fluid Balance: Chloride ions are abundant in extracellular fluid (outside cells). They help maintain osmotic pressure and fluid balance. When sodium enters cells, chloride ions often follow to maintain electrical neutrality.
4. Acid-Base Balance: Chloride ions are involved in maintaining the body’s acid-base balance (pH). They combine with hydrogen ions (H⁺) to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach, aiding digestion.

Overall, chloride ions work alongside sodium and potassium to ensure proper cell function, nerve signaling, and fluid balance.

Potassium

Proper potassium levels are crucial for maintaining blood pressure and preventing dehydration. Potassium is a key source of electrons for the mitochondria found in every cell and for the circulation of the blood.

1. Cellular Balance: Potassium (K⁺) is a positively charged ion found both inside and outside cells. Together with sodium (Na⁺), potassium helps create electrical differences across cell membranes. This balance is crucial for nerve function, muscle contraction, and overall cell health. The sodium-potassium pump actively transports these ions across the cell membrane, maintaining the right concentration gradients.
2. Nerve Impulses: Potassium is essential for nerve cells (neurons). It influences the resting membrane potential, which affects how nerve impulses are transmitted. When a nerve cell is stimulated, potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to flow out. This repolarizes the cell, preparing it for the next impulse.
3. Muscle Function: Potassium plays a role in muscle contraction. Adequate levels are necessary for smooth muscle function, including the heart muscle (cardiac muscle). Imbalances can lead to muscle weakness, cramps, or irregular heart rhythms.
4. Fluid Balance: Potassium maintains fluid balance within cells. It regulates osmotic pressure, preventing excessive water loss or swelling.

Calcium

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. Approximately 1% of the total calcium content serves as a crucial component for metabolic processes. These include vascular contraction and dilation, muscle functionality, blood coagulation, cardiac rhythm regulation, nerve impulse transmission, intracellular signaling, and hormone secretion. The remaining 99% of calcium resides in a role of essential structural support, primarily contributing to the integrity of bones and teeth. Notably, when blood calcium levels decline, a hormonal cascade is initiated, prompting the release of calcium from bones into the circulatory system.

Calcium absorption depends on the amount of calcium consumed at one time; the higher the amount, the less absorption. However, the presence of vitamin D increases calcium absorption.

Silicon

Silicon plays an essential role in bone formation and maintenance. Silicon improves bone matrix quality and facilitates bone mineralization. Increased intake of bioavailable silicon has been associated with increased bone mineral density. Silicon supplementation in animals and humans has been shown to increase bone mineral density and improve bone strength. ²

Sulfur

Sulfur is the third most abundant mineral in the body and it plays several vital roles:

1. Amino Acid Synthesis: Sulfur is necessary for the production of amino acids like cysteine and methionine. These amino acids are building blocks for proteins, including those found in skin, hair, and nails1.
2. Antioxidant Support: Sulfur is a component of glutathione, a powerful antioxidant. Glutathione helps protect cells from damage and supports overall health.
3. DNA and Protein Repair: Sulfur is involved in repairing DNA and maintaining protein structures. It contributes to the health of skin, tendons, and ligaments.
4. Metabolism: Sulfur assists in metabolizing food and contributes to energy production.

Sulfur-rich foods in your diet (such as garlic, onions, and cruciferous vegetables) and animal-based proteins (like turkey, beef, fish, and chicken). Boiled Eggs: A typical 55-gram boiled egg contains about 180 milligrams of sulfur.🌟 ³

Phosphorus

Phosphorus, a mineral essential for our health, plays several key roles in the body:

1. Bone and Teeth Health: Close to 85% of the phosphorus in your body is found in bones and teeth. It works alongside calcium to build and maintain their strength.
2. Energy Production: Phosphorus helps convert fat, carbohydrates, and protein into energy. It’s involved in the body’s energy production processes.
3. Muscle Function: Phosphorus supports muscle function by lessening pain after exercise and aiding in muscle recovery.
4. Kidney Function: It helps eliminate waste through the kidneys.
5. Nerve Signaling: Phosphorus plays a role in transmitting signals along certain nerves in the body.
6. DNA and RNA Formation: Phosphorus is necessary for creating DNA and RNA, which are essential for cell growth, repair, and overall health.

Remember that phosphorus is present in many foods, including meats, dairy products, and beans

Boron a Synergist

Boron is involved in cell wall strength as it moves calcium into the cell walls. Boron has been shown to increase the absorption of calcium and magnesium, two minerals that are important to maintain healthy bones and joints. A shortage of boron in the diet has been linked to inflammatory processes including swollen joints and restricted movement. Boron is also intimately linked to energy as it affects energy substrates including triglycerides, glucose, amino acids, free radicals and estrogen. It is essential for the growth and maintenance of bone, greatly improves wound healing, beneficially impacts the body’s use of estrogen, testosterone, and vitamin D, boosts magnesium absorption, reduces levels of inflammatory biomarkers, raises levels of antioxidant enzymes, protects against pesticide-induced oxidative stress and heavy-metal toxicity, improves the brain's electrical activity, cognitive performance, and short-term memory for elders. ³

A shortage of boron in the diet has been linked to inflammatory processes including swollen joints and restricted movement. It is needed for the production of antibodies in the immune system, for the production of serine protease (which is linked to platelet aggregation) and for the metabolism of leukotrienes which are involved in the inflammatory response. Boron is also intimately linked to energy as it affects energy substrates including triglycerides, glucose, amino acids, free radicals and even estrogen.

Zinc

The two most notable benefits of zinc include supporting the immune system and helping heal damaged cells, and the mineral plays a role in the growth of cells. Zinc is necessary for proper growth, wound healing, and immune function. It also plays a role in protein and DNA synthesis. Zinc also plays a crucial role in multiplying cells. It even plays a role in the senses of taste and smell. ⁴ “The greatest benefit of zinc appears to be in people who are deficient also have severe wounds (a form of damaged cells), so they have very high needs,” Halperin says. Dietary the highest amounts of zinc include several of the meat categories ... pumpkin seeds, cheese, and lentils.

Iodine

Iodine is a crucial mineral with several health benefits:

1. Thyroid Function: Iodine is essential for thyroid health. It helps produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), which regulate metabolism, body temperature, and brain development.
2. Pregnancy and Brain Development: Pregnant women need extra iodine for proper brain development in their babies. Insufficient iodine during pregnancy can lead to intellectual delays and lower IQs in children. Breastfeeding mothers also require adequate iodine to support their infants’ brain development.
3. Cognitive Function: Iodine supports cognitive function in children, reducing the risk of intellectual disabilities.
4. Goiter Prevention: Iodine helps prevent goiters (enlarged thyroid) caused by hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. A lack of iodine in the diet is a common cause of goiters.

Copper

Aids in iron absorption and collagen formation.

Selenium

Acts as an antioxidant and supports thyroid function.

Trace Elements

There are many trace elements in tiny amounts in tissue and organs, such as iodine, zinc, boron, selenium and others. Iron (Fe): Necessary for oxygen transport in the blood (hemoglobin) and energy production (cytochromes). Zinc (Zn): Supports immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis. Copper (Cu): Aids in iron absorption, collagen formation, and antioxidant defense. Selenium (Se): Acts as an antioxidant, supports thyroid function, and plays a role in immune health. Manganese (Mn): Involved in bone health, enzyme activation, and antioxidant systems. Chromium (Cr): Helps regulate blood sugar levels by enhancing insulin action. Fluoride (F): Essential for dental health and preventing tooth decay. Molybdenum (Mo): Required for enzyme activity and metabolism of certain amino acids.

change to essential oils Volatile aromatic oils carried in when we breathe, interact with receptors located along the nasal passages.

Organic Compounds

A substance is classified as a vitamin if it is an organic compound that is essential in small amounts for normal physiological function.

Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid and an omega-7 fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccenic_acid (opens in a new tab)] Fulvic acid plays the role of a conductor in your gut, ensuring that the microbiome orchestra performs harmoniously. It encourages the growth of beneficial bacteria while discouraging harmful pathogens.

Organic Acids

Organic acids are a broad class of organic compounds possessing acidic properties, commonly produced as metabolic byproducts. 2-hydroxyisocaproic acid (HICA) is an organic acid metabolite derived from the breakdown of the branched-chain amino acid leucine. This process, primarily occurring in muscle and connective tissues, is catalyzed by the enzyme branched-chain aminotransferase (BCAT), producing◾α-Ketoisocaproic acid which is then converted into HICA. HICA is synthesized by various lactic acid bacteria during food fermentation processes, contributing to the unique flavors of certain cheeses and other fermented products. This acid is not only a key player in normal metabolic functions but also in disease states, where its levels can become markedly elevated, leading to serious health issues.
In clinical contexts, monitoring HICA levels can provide insights into metabolic health and the efficiency of amino acid utilization.

What Are Organic Acids? Organic acids are organic compounds with acidic properties. They include a variety of functional groups like carboxyl, phenol, enol, and thiol, with carboxylic acids having the strongest acidity. Organic acids are considered weak acids, with those containing phenol, enol, alcohol, or thiol groups being even weaker.
Their structures vary in terms of carbon chain types—aromatic, aliphatic, alicyclic, heterocyclic—saturation, substitutions, and the number of functional groups. These acids play critical roles in metabolic and catabolic pathways, notably in the tricarboxylic acid cycle inside mitochondria, which is central to energy production in eukaryotes. [^mmmm] RUPA Health: ^What are Organic Acids (opens in a new tab)

Vitamins

Vitimin A, retinol, retinoic acid:

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that is stored in the liver. There are two types of vitamin A that are found in the diet.

1. Preformed vitamin A is found in animal products such as meat, fish, poultry, and dairy foods.
2. Precursors to vitamin A, also known as provitamin A, are found in plant-based foods such as fruits and vegetables. The most common type of provitamin A is beta-carotene.

Vitamin A is also available in dietary supplements. It most often comes in the form of retinyl acetate or retinyl palmitate (preformed vitamin A), beta-carotene (provitamin A) or a combination of preformed and provitamin A. Helps you see at night, make red blood cells, and fight off infections. It also helps prevent damage to cells and an eye problem called age-related macular degeneration. Eat orange veggies and fruits like sweet potato and cantaloupe, spinach and other greens, dairy foods, and seafood such as shrimp and salmon.

Thiamine Vitamin B1:

The body’s cells need thiamine in order to generate energy, develop, grow, and function. Thiamine plays a role in metabolizing glucose (sugar), which is part of the process used by the body to provide cells with energy. It’s also key for the structure of brain cells. Vitamin B1, Thiamine is a cofactor in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched-chain amino acids. Most Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) supplements available come as Thiamine hydrochloride (HCl). Benfotiamine (S-benzoylthiamine O-monophosphate) is a synthetic S-acyl derivative of thiamine. This fat-soluble form of thiamine is much more bioavailable than HCI. Tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide (TTFD) (Fursultiamine) is a disulfide derivative of thiamine that is water-soluble. Sulbutiamine is a synthetic version of thiamine (two thiamine molecules bound together). Legumes, like black beans and lentils, acorn squash, and seeds are go-to sources. Pork and tuna is also good. People with diabetes tend to have low levels.

Riboflavin Vitamin B2:

Riboflavin is a precursor to the cofactors FAD and FMN, which are involved in energy production, antioxidant activities, and the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Your cells need it to work right, and it might help prevent migraines.

Here are some key points about riboflavin:

1. Coenzyme Formation: Riboflavin is essential for the formation of two major coenzymes: flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). These coenzymes play critical roles in energy metabolism, cellular respiration, and antibody production. They are also necessary for the metabolism of niacin, vitamin B6, and folate.
2. Functions: Riboflavin contributes to normal growth, development, and brain function. It’s involved in maintaining healthy skin, the lining of the digestive tract, and blood cells.
3. Increases butyrate production.

Natural Sources: You can find riboflavin in various foods, including meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, green vegetables, root vegetables, mushrooms, non-citrus fruits like bananas, avocados, watermelon, and almonds.

Niacin Vitamin B3:

B3 is made and used by your body to turn food into energy. It helps keep your nervous system, digestive system and skin healthy. Vitamin B3, also known as Niacin, is an essential nutrient that comes in two primary forms:

1. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid)
2. Niacinamide (Nicotinamide) Both forms are converted in the body to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a coenzyme necessary for energy production and DNA repair.

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 in coenzyme forms performs a wide variety of functions in the body and is extremely versatile, with involvement in more than 100 enzyme reactions, mostly concerned with protein metabolism. Helps protect your skin and tissues, turn food into energy and store it. It may also improve your cholesterol levels. Both PLP and PMP are involved in amino acid metabolism, and PLP is also involved in the metabolism of one-carbon units, carbohydrates, and lipids. Vitamin B6 also plays a role in cognitive development through the biosynthesis of neurotransmitters and in maintaining normal levels of homocysteine, an amino acid in the blood.

B6 is involved in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, immune function (for example, it promotes lymphocyte and interleukin-2 production), and hemoglobin formation. The human body absorbs vitamin B6 in the jejunum. ( middle of small intestines ) Phosphorylated forms of the vitamin are dephosphorylated, and the pool of free vitamin B6 is absorbed by passive diffusion. Vitamin B6 concentrations can be measured directly by assessing concentrations of PLP; other vitamers; or total vitamin B6 in plasma, erythrocytes, or urine.

Serve up some chicken, turkey, salmon, or other lean meats. You’re vegan? Eat crimini mushrooms, peanuts, and peanut butter.

Pantothenic acid:

Helps your body turn food into energy. Vitamin B5, Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A (CoA), which plays a crucial role in the metabolism of fatty acids, carbohydrates, and proteins, as well as the synthesis of important biomolecules. It’s found in many foods, including meat, poultry, fish, legumes, eggs, and milk.

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6, Pyridoxine is a cofactor in the metabolism of amino acids, the synthesis of neurotransmitters, and the production of hemoglobin.

Vitamin B7 Biotin:

Biotin is a cofactor for enzymes involved in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose, as well as the regulation of gene expression.

Vitamin B9 Folate:

Is important in red blood cell formation and for healthy cell growth and function. Folate (from food) → Tetrahydrofolate (THF) → Methylfolate (5-MTHF) Folate is found mainly in dark green leafy vegetables, beans, peas and nuts. Fruits rich in folate include oranges, lemons, bananas, melons and strawberries.

Folate is found mainly in dark green leafy vegetables, beans, peas and nuts. Fruits rich in folate include oranges, lemons, bananas, melons and strawberries. The synthetic form of folate is folic acid. Plays a role in more than 100 different reactions in your body.

Some research has shown that B6 may help protect against memory loss, colorectal cancer, and PMS. It’s found in many kinds of foods including leafy and root vegetables; non-citrus fruits like bananas, avocados, and watermelon; legumes; and fish, poultry, and lean meat.

Vitamin B12, Cobalamin:

Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin that plays an essential role in red blood cell formation, cell metabolism, nerve function and the production of DNA, the molecules inside cells that carry genetic information. The liver stores enough B12 to last up to four years under normal circumstances. But B12 does need to be replenished through diet or supplements. Food sources of vitamin B-12 include poultry, meat, fish and dairy products.

Vitamin C: (ascorbic acid)

Your body needs vitamin C to help your bones, skin, and muscles grow. You’ll get enough by including bell peppers, papaya, strawberries, broccoli, cantaloupe, leafy greens, and other fruits and veggies in your diet.

Vitamin D:

Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood. The vitamin D receptor is found in most cells, not just those involved with bone and mineral homeostasis (i.e., bone, gut, kidney) resulting in wide spread actions of 1,25(OH)2D on most physiologic and pathologic processes. ⁵

Vitamin D refers to a group of secosteroid compounds and encounter several factors influencing the absorptIt seems that the bioavailability of vitamin D is a function of various factors such as absorption, transportation and metabolism. ⁶ Vitamin D Binding Protein (VDBP), also known as Gc-globulin, plays a crucial role in vitamin D transport. VDBP is synthesized by the liver and secreted into the bloodstream. Its primary function is to bind to vitamin D metabolites and transport them from the skin (where vitamin D is synthesized) to various target tissues. Essentially, VDBP acts as a carrier protein for vitamin D.

There are several different forms of vitamin D that circulate or are present in cells within the body:

Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) - This is the form synthesized in the skin from 7-dehydrocholesterol upon exposure to sunlight (UVB rays). It is also obtained from animal-based foods.

25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) - This is the major circulating form of vitamin D in the blood. It is produced when vitamin D3 is hydroxylated in the liver by enzymes like CYP2R1.

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D) - This is the biologically active form of vitamin D, produced when 25(OH)D is further hydroxylated in the kidneys by the enzyme CYP27B1. It binds to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) to exert its effects.

24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (24,25(OH)2D) - This is a metabolite formed by the enzyme CYP24A1 acting on 25(OH)D. Its levels correlate with 25(OH)D concentrations.

3-epi-25(OH)D3 - This is an epimer (stereoisomer) of 25(OH)D3 that can make up 0-13.3% of total circulating 25(OH)D levels.

The lipophilic nature of vitamin D explains its adipose tissue distribution and its slow turnover in the body (half-life approximately 2 mo). Its main transported metabolite, 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) [25(OH)D(3)], shows a half-life of approximately 15 d and circulates at a concentration of 25-200 nmol/L, whereas the hormone 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) has a half-life of approximately 15 hours. [^mmnn] [^mmnn]: PubMed: [Pharmacokinetics of vitamin D toxicity] (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18689406/ (opens in a new tab))

Vitamin D3 supplements are classified as a secosteroid, and possible to reach levels of toxicity with this form of supplementation; whareas natural sunlight vitamin D is self-regulating Supplementation with vitamin D3 for 24 months did not improve an index of β-cell function in people with prediabetes ⁷ cite this: Update on biological actions of 1alpha,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 (rapid effects) and 24R,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 (opens in a new tab)

You can get it in eggs, fatty fish, and fortified foods like milk and cereal. Sunlight is important for your body make vitamin D.

Vitamin E:

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin. Your body stores vitamin E in fatty tissue and the liver and plays several important roles in supporting human health and bodily functions:

1. Antioxidant Activity:

Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that protects cells from damage caused by free radicals and reactive oxygen species. It neutralizes free radicals, preventing them from initiating oxidation reactions that can damage lipids, proteins, and DNA in cells. Vitamin E helps regenerate and spare other antioxidants like vitamin C, allowing them to continue their protective effects.

2. Immune Function:

Vitamin E is required for proper immune system function and helps keep the immune system strong against viruses and bacteria. It enhances the proliferation of T cells, which are critical for the immune response.

3. Red Blood Cell Formation:

Vitamin E helps in the formation and maturation of red blood cells (erythropoiesis). It widens blood vessels and prevents blood clotting inside them.

4. Role in Cell Signaling:

Cells use vitamin E to facilitate communication and interaction with each other, allowing them to carry out important functions. Potential Disease Prevention: The antioxidant properties of vitamin E may help prevent or reduce the risk of certain conditions like cancer, heart disease, cataracts, and Alzheimer's disease, though more research is still needed.

4. Skin Health:

Vitamin E supplements may benefit certain skin disorders like eczema, though evidence is currently limited.

Vitamin E's main roles are as a potent antioxidant protecting cells, supporting immune function, aiding red blood cell formation and cell signaling, and potentially reducing disease risk through its antioxidant effects.

Helps your body form red blood cells. It’s found in many foods, including seeds, nuts, dairy, and green leafy vegetables. Foods rich in vitamin E include olive oil, almonds and peanuts.

Vitamin K:

You need it for blood clotting and healthy bones. Vitamin K is found in many foods, like spinach, kale, salad greens, and beef liver.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10):

CoQ10 (Coenzyme Q10) plays two critical roles in the body:

1. Antioxidant Role:

CoQ10 is a fat-soluble antioxidant present in nearly all cell membranes and lipoproteins. In its reduced form (ubiquinol), CoQ10 can directly neutralize free radicals and reactive oxygen species, protecting cells from oxidative damage. It can regenerate and spare other antioxidants like vitamin E and vitamin C, allowing them to continue their antioxidant functions. CoQ10's antioxidant activity helps protect proteins, lipids, and DNA from oxidation.

2. Role in Energy Production:

CoQ10 is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC). It accepts electrons from enzyme complexes like NADH dehydrogenase and transfers them along the ETC to generate a proton gradient. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to produce ATP, the cell's main energy currency. CoQ10 is indispensable for cellular energy production through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria.

CoQ10 acts as an important antioxidant that protects cells and an essential cofactor facilitating electron transport and ATP generation, two vital roles that underscore its significance for proper cellular function and energy metabolism throughout the body.

Melatonin

Book: Melatonin (opens in a new tab) Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland, a small gland in the brain. Melatonin and vitamin D and mmay act as biochemical sensors to meet requirements for both light and darkness, respectively. Like vitamin D, melatonin is found throughout the body. Melatonin has been found in many tissues other than the pineal gland and gut mucosa, including the brain, retina, lens, cochlea, trachea, skin, liver, kidney, thyroid, pancreas, thymus, spleen, and reproductive tissues [6]. Is Melatonin the “Next Vitamin D”?: A Review of Emerging Science, Clinical Uses, Safety, and Dietary Supplements (opens in a new tab) It is present in nearly all bodily fluids: cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, bile, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, urine, feces, semen, and breast milk [16,19,20]. Specifically, vitamin D and melatonin may work synergistically in the skin. melatonin is involved with multiple activities that include mitochondrial homeostasis, genomic regulation, modulation of inflammatory and immune cytokines, directly impacting both systemic and acute anti-inflammatory properties

Niacinamide (B3) enhances the production of melatonin and can produce it from tryptophan. Niacinamide by itself is recommended for insomnia and high blood pressure. Natural sources include dried apricots, barley, beef liver, brewer's yeast, peanuts, sunflower seeds, wheat bran. B-6 or pyridoxine, may stimulate melatonin production to convert tryptophan to seotonin, a precursor for melatonin. Foods high in B-6 include avocados, banans, brewer's yeast, carrots, filberts, lentils, rice, shrimp, soybeans, sunflower seeds, wheat bran and wheat germ.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes have an electric charge – positive or negative – when dissolved in fluids, such as blood. Those electric charges signal muscles and nerves. Our bodies would not work without electrolytes. These are minerals like calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium are generally found in a healthy diet.

Anti-Nutrients

Anti-nutrients are substances that can interfere with the absorption of nutrients. They also contain harmful substances like: Glucosinolates, Gluten, Lectins, Oxalates, Phytates or phytic acid, Saponins, Tannins, Trypsin inhibitors.

Oxalates are found in spinach, beets, rhubarb, and chard. Phytates are found in beans, grains, and nuts. Lectins are found in beans, grains, and nuts. Lectins are also found in wheat, rye, barley, and oats. Lectins are also found in soybeans, peanuts, potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant, squash, melons, cucumbers, apples, pears, plums. Lectins are found in apricots, peaches, nectarines, grapes, berries, and citrus fruits. Lectins are found in all types of beans, lentils, and peas. Lectins are found in all types of grains, including wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, and corn. Lectins can be found in foods like beans, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, spinach, beets, and Brussels sprouts. [^1111] [^1111] mmm:

Ethnobotany

With the destiny of humanity being the revelation of truth and the expansion of consciousness, ethnobotany looks at how particular cultures and regions make use of native plants.

Plants provide food, medicine, shelter, dyes, fibers, oils, resins, gums, soaps, waxes, latex, tannins, and even contribute to the air we breathe. Plants are central to ceremonial traditions, spiritual beliefs, narratives, and even language. Herbal remedies and medicines can serve as complementary or alternative therapies for different types of diseases because of their low cost, availability, and generally has fewer side effects.

1. Identification of nutrient-rich plants: Ethnobotanical studies have helped identify plants that are rich sources of essential nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, proteins, and healthy fats. Many traditional cultures have relied on these plants as part of their diets, and their knowledge can inform modern nutritional practices.
2. Uncovering medicinal plants: Ethnobotany has played a crucial role in discovering plants with medicinal properties that can aid in various metabolic processes. For example, certain plants have been found to have hypoglycemic effects, which can help regulate blood sugar levels and contribute to better management of metabolic conditions like diabetes.
3. Understanding traditional food processing techniques: Traditional cultures often employ specific processing techniques for plants, such as fermentation, soaking, or cooking methods. These techniques can enhance the bioavailability of nutrients, improve digestibility, or reduce the presence of anti-nutritional factors. Ethnobotanical studies can provide insights into these traditional practices, which can be applied to modern food processing methods.
4. Exploring plant-based remedies for metabolic disorders: Many traditional cultures have used plant-based remedies to manage metabolic disorders, such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, and liver or kidney diseases. Ethnobotanical research can help identify the active compounds in these plants and explore their potential therapeutic applications in modern medicine.
5. Promoting sustainable food systems: Ethnobotany can contribute to the preservation and promotion of traditional food systems that are often based on locally available and sustainable plant resources. These systems can provide nutritious and culturally appropriate diets while minimizing environmental impact.

Foot Notes

End Notes

Mg Hydroxide = constipation Mg Sulfate = muscle relaxer & sleep Mg Malate = muscle relaxer & sleep Mg Glycinate = muscle relaxer & sleep Mg Threonate = brain cognition/only Mg that crosses the blood brain barrier Mg Taurate = heart health Mg Orotate = heart health Mg Chloride = digestion/acid reflux Mg Aspartate = digestion/acid reflux Mg Gluconate = digestion/acid reflux Mg Carbonate = bone health & density Mg Lactate = bone health/density Mg Oxide = migraine treatment/prevention

Vegan vs Herbavors

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is a nutrient similar to protein and iron in that the form you get from animal products is slightly different from the type you get from plant foods. Animal products like meat, eggs, and dairy are rich in what's known as preformed vitamin A, which is also referred to as retinol. On the other hand, plant products are rich in what's known as provitamin A or carotenoids. Strictly speaking, carotenoids are converted by the body into vitamin A during digestion.⁸

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is a nutrient that's found exclusively in animal products.

Calcium

Plant-based sources of calcium include leafy greens, cruciferous vegetables, tofu.

Vitamin D

Aim for dietary vitamin D, which is found prominently in foods like fish, eggs, and liver, especially from those sources that spent lifes in natural sunlight. Vitamin D is found in mushrooms and vegetables such as carrots and broccoli, as well as fruits such as papaya, mango, and avocado.

Iodine

Most meat-eaters get this mineral from fish, dairy, and eggs. Vegams can incorporate sea vegetables into the diet. Seaweed like nori, typically used as a wrap for sushi, is rich in iodine. Additionally, there is kelp, a type of algae,

Iron

The Vegan Society recommends legumes like lentils, chickpeas, and beans, as well as nuts or seeds like chia, cashews, pumpkin seeds, and hemp seeds. Dried fruit including apricots, raisins, and figs are other good source. Plant-based iron doesn't get absorbed by your body as readily as animal iron, so you would have to consume more iron than a meat-eater would.

Selenium

Selenium is typically found in organ meats and seafood and also found in sunflower seeds, Brazil nuts, barley, wheat germ, and chia seeds.

Vitamin K

The most common sources of vitamin K are leafy greens like spinach, kale, collards, and swiss chard. Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin, which means it's absorbed into your body with dietary fat.

Omega 3

Foods like flaxseeds, chia seeds, beans, walnuts, and edamame

Zinc

Foods like legumes, nuts, and seeds, oats, and tofu.